Various biochemical reactions continue to occur in organisms, which require corresponding enzymes to catalyze, so there are many types of enzymes. According to statistics from the enzyme website BRENDA, the number of enzymes officially included has reached 7,984.

To study and apply these enzymes with different properties and functions, a systematic and effective classification method is necessary. Although the molecular composition and cellular location of enzymes can be used as the basis for classification, classification according to the type of reaction catalyzed is the most reasonable method for functional research.

In 1961, the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB) classified all enzymes into six categories according to the types of reactions they catalyzed. In August 2018, the classification of translocation enzymes was added, so there are now seven major enzymes, namely: oxidoreductase (EC 1), Transferases (EC 2), hydrolase (EC 3), lyase (EC 4), isomerase (EC 5), ligase (EC 6) and translocator (EC 7). Among them, EC stands for Enzyme Commission.

Among the seven enzyme classes, each class is divided into several subclasses. The sub-categories differ according to the characteristics of various reactions. For example, oxidoreductase is based on the type of electron donor, and transfer enzyme is based on the type of transferred group, and so on.

Oxidoreductase catalyzes oxidation-reduction reactions, that is, electron transfer between molecules. It is isomerase that catalyzes intramolecular redox reactions. According to the principle of systematic classification, oxidoreductases are divided into 24 subtypes according to the type of electron donor (substrate), and the sub-subtypes are divided according to the electron acceptor.

Traditionally, oxidoreductases are often divided into 4 subtypes: dehydrogenase (receptor is a reducing coenzyme), oxidase (receptor is molecular oxygen), peroxidase (receptor is hydrogen peroxide), and oxygenase (catalyze the incorporation of oxygen atoms into organic molecules). This is also the naming convention for common names of oxidoreductases.

Oxidoreductases is the most abundant enzyme, currently there are 2375 kinds. Its oxidation, productivity, detoxification and other functions are extremely important to organisms, and its application in production is second only to hydrolytic enzymes. Such enzymes usually require cofactors, which can be determined according to the photoelectric properties of the cofactors during the reaction.

Transferase catalyzes the transfer reaction of functional groups, such as various aminotransferases and kinases catalyze the transfer of amino and phosphate groups, respectively. Coenzymes are often needed for transfer enzymes, but the reaction is not easy to determine. According to the nature of the transferred group, it is divided into 10 subclasses, the important ones are:

One-carbon transferase (EC 2.1): transfer one carbon unit, such as methyltransferase related to nucleic acid and protein methylation. Carboxyltransferases belong to this subclass, such as methylmalonyl-CoA carboxytransferase (EC 2.1.3.1). However, carboxylase that consumes ATP is a ligase, such as pyruvate carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.1).

Glycosyltransferase (EC 2.4): closely related to carbohydrate metabolism, such as glycogen synthase (2.4.1.11) and glycogen phosphorylase (2.4.1.1).

Phosphotransferase (EC 2.7): often called kinase, mostly ATP as the donor. For example, hexokinase, protein tyrosine kinase, etc. It should be noted that a few proteases are also called kinases (such as enterokinase), but they are hydrolases.

Hydrolase catalyzes the hydrolysis of substrates, such as proteases and lipases. Hydrolases generally play a degrading role and are mostly located outside the cell (such as in the digestive tract) or in the lysosome. Some proteases were also called kinases (such as enterokinase, EC 3.4.21.9, which is now called enteropeptidase).

Lyases catalyze the removal of a small molecule from the substrate, leaving a double bond (or ring) or its reverse reaction, such as aldolase, hydratase, decarboxylase, etc. IUBMB adjusted the classification and transferred part of the lyase to the transfer enzyme classification. For example, citrate synthase was once included in the lyase (EC 4.1.3.7) and has now been transferred to the acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.3.1).

Isomerases catalyze the mutual conversion between isomers, including racemase, epizyme, cis-trans isomerase, mutase (intramolecular group transfer) and intramolecular oxidation-reduction, Intramolecular elimination-addition reaction and other 6 subclasses.

Ligases catalyze the synthesis of one substance from two substances and must be coupled with ATP decomposition, such as DNA ligase, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, etc. Synthetase was used as a generic name before, because many people confused it with synthase, so IUBMB changed it to ligase in 1983.

High school textbooks say that most enzymes are proteins. This sentence is not comprehensive, and you can’t know this fact just by deduction—enzymes are not only proteins, but also RNases.

What is an enzyme?

Enzymes are defined as macromolecules capable of catalyzing biochemical reactions. In this type of chemical reaction, the starting molecule is called the substrate. The enzyme interacts with the substrate and converts it into a new product.

The name of an enzyme usually comes from its substrate or the chemical reaction catalyzed by it. It is named by the combination of “substrate name + enzyme (suffix)” (in English, the word for enzyme ends with -ase), such as protease, urease, amylase, lactase, alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase, etc. Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called isoenzymes.

Almost all metabolic reactions in the body rely on enzymes, so that the reaction can proceed fast enough to function and maintain life.

A chemical substance called an activator can enhance the activity of an enzyme, while an inhibitor can reduce the activity of an enzyme. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.

The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology has developed an EC number for enzymes; each enzyme is described by a four-digit sequence preceded by “EC”, “EC” stands for “Enzymology Committee”. The first number categorizes enzymes broadly according to their mechanism.

The top-level classification is:

EC 1, oxidoreductase: catalyze oxidation/reduction reaction

EC 2, transferase: transfer a functional group (such as methyl or phosphate)

EC 3, hydrolase: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds

EC 4, Lyase: In addition to hydrolysis and oxidation, it can also cleave various chemical bonds

EC 5, Isomerase: catalyzes changes in isomerization in a single molecule

EC 6, ligase: connect two molecules with a covalent bond.

Enzyme working mechanism

Enzymes work by reducing the activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur. Like other catalysts, enzymes will change the balance of the reaction, but will not be consumed during the reaction. Some enzymes can increase the conversion rate of substrates into products millions of times. An extreme example is orotate deoxynucleoside 5′-phosphate decarboxylase, which enables a reaction that takes millions of years to occur in milliseconds.

Although most catalysts can act on many different types of reactions, a key feature of enzymes is that they are specific.

In other words, an enzyme that catalyzes a specific reaction has no effect on other reactions. For example, amylase cannot hydrolyze cellulose, so cellulose cannot be digested and absorbed in the human body. It is the specificity of enzymes that allows organisms to proceed in an orderly manner.

The specificity of enzymes comes from their unique three-dimensional structure. Most enzymes are globular proteins that are much larger than the substrates they interact with. Their size ranges from 62 amino acids to more than 2,500 amino acid residues, but only part of the structure is involved in catalysis.

This enzyme has an active site, which contains one or more binding sites for the substrate to be oriented in the correct configuration, and a catalytic site, which reduces the activation energy. Part of the molecule. The main function of the rest of the enzyme structure is to provide the active site to the substrate in the best possible way. There may also be allosteric sites where activators or inhibitors can bind to cause conformational changes that affect enzyme activity.

There are already more than 5,000 biochemical reactions known to be catalyzed by enzymes. Enzymes are also used in industrial and household products. For example, enzymes (enzymes) are used to brew beer, make wine and cheese. Some diseases are related to the lack of enzymes in the body, such as phenylketonuria and albinism. Here are some common examples of enzymes:

The amylasein saliva catalyzes the initial digestion of carbohydrates in food.
Papain is a common enzyme in meat tenderizers, and its role is to break the chemical bonds between protein molecules.
Enzymes in detergents and detergents can break down protein stains and dissolve grease on fabrics.
When DNA is copied, DNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction and checks whether the correct bases are used.

Crooked and uneven teeth can affect your confidence level and cause several health problems in the later stages of your life. However, most people refrain from wearing metal braces due to embarrassment and the discomfort associated with it. The latest alternative to the traditional metallic braces is Invisalign, which helps to straighten misaligned teeth without the need to feel embarrassed or self-conscious. However, you need to know a few interesting facts about Invisalign in McLean before you choose to wear them.Treatment varies from one person to anotherFor most people, invisible aligners correct their teeth within a year, but it also depends on the actual state of your teeth and the corrections required. The treatment is therefore subjective and can vary from one person to another. It can correct slightly misaligned teeth within a few months; on the other hand, if you have severe problems, it might take longer. Your dentist will be able to help you understand how it works and how long it will take to correct your teeth. Nevertheless, it is very important to wear them every day as long as possible. The best way to see results is to wear them all day long and remove them only when you eat, drink, and brush.Lisping is temporaryPerhaps one of the obvious drawbacks of wearing invisible aligners is that you will lisp a bit in the first few days when you start wearing the aligners. This is quite natural and of course, temporary. You need to keep your aligners in all the time so that you get used to wearing them. If you keep taking them out while you speak, you will experience the problem of lisping all the time. You can easily get over them once you start wearing your aligners 24/7. Apart from the simple flaw that you might lisp when you wear them, invisible aligners are never visible to the others!Brushing and flossingOne of the most important things with invisible aligners is that you need to brush and floss more than you do usually. Your dental care routine should be a bit longer than usual because every time you eat, you will need to brush your teeth. Flossing is also essential to remove any food particles that are stuck in between the teeth. Food particles and plaque that are stuck in between the teeth rub with the aligners and cause dental pain. The aligners will also cease to fit well on the teeth when there is debris in between them. Invisible aligners cover your teeth after you eat or drink which is why you need to brush and floss your teeth after each meal.Invisalign in McLean offers a great opportunity to align your crooked teeth without ugly braces, pain, and discomfort.

For considering signs of sadness, some research proposes that high degrees of aerobic action (exercises that essentially raise our pulses) might be related with more noteworthy decreases in depressing signs. Consider participating in physical movement on more than one occasion daily that includes brief periods of 30-90 seconds.

For a few, this may happen through an exercise in their homes including bouncing jacks, hikers, and sequencing strength training works out (for example standing squats, push-ups, sit-ups). For other people, the usage of home gym equipment, for example, treadmills, curved machines, and fixed bicycles might be useful.

Strength training has appeared to lessen the side effects of uneasiness for people with and without a tension issue. Weightlifting using gym equipment or family unit things (course books, canned merchandise, milk containers loaded up with water, paint jars) may assist with reducing the negative impacts of pressure and uneasiness.

For adults and teenagers, moderate-to-energetic physical movement and exercise during the day can result in increasing their confidence, improved focus. It can also decrease pressure signs, and upgrades in rest.

For older grown-ups and among people overseeing chronic sickness, daily walks are suggested. The advantages of strength training and weightlifting (low weight with high quantities of redundancies) might be considerably more prominent in more grown-ups to keep up personal satisfaction and working.

Moderate-to-enthusiastic physical action, (for example, speed-strolling or running) has appeared to help decrease the intake of alcohol and different substances. Moreover, indulging in normal physical movement appears to support the safe system. A decrease in substance use is also connected with progress in the body’s capacity to heal from various diseases.

Numerous organizations are offering their on-line platforms that may assist with knowing a variety of in-home exercises (indoor cycling, treadmill running, move cardio, yoga, strength training, and that’s only the tip of the iceberg) to assist make training more fun during this period of Covid-19. It is suggested to find physical exercises that you like and to share your experience with other people.

It is important for close family members to play a steady job in the advancement of physical therapy and exercise. Allowing people to keep up their freedom and decision in their exercises is very important for continuous commitment.

Everyone is generally dealing with extra pressure related to the development of the COVID-19 pandemic and its capability to compromise the peace of ourselves, our families, and our networks. If it’s not too much trouble, think about using physical therapy and exercise as a way to keep up your health during this unpleasant period.

It is true that many things feel outside our ability to control at this moment. We are trying really hard to be productive and to include physical action and exercise into every one of our days. We may even think back on this hard time as the defining moment when we learned better ways to improve our physical health.

An innovative walk around and down the steps conditions the legs and may even control glucose. Try these seven simple step exercises at the present time.

You needn’t bother with extravagant gym equipment to do a hardcore exercise. You may not have to leave your home. Crush some fast exercise into your day by essentially counting onto your steps.

Research shows that step climbing fortifies and tones your leg muscles. It keeps your leg courses adaptable, allowing blood to move without any problem. Better bloodstream in your legs rises to a more healthy heart and body.

Going for a three-minute walk here and there the steps after supper may also help you with controlling your glucose. Hold back on rest the previous evening? In case you’re a young woman, step climbing may wake you up superior to a little mug of espresso.

A basic walk around and down the steps gives you a vigorous exercise. If you can get considerably more noteworthy healthy support by including a couple of obstruction related moves. Gear up your everyday practice routine with these seven basic steps.

Step pushup
Moving into step practices without making a stride.

Immovably place your hands on a stage. Your hands need to be simple under your shoulders.

Drive your toes into the floor and expand your legs into a board position. You should feel your center (stomach) muscles working.

Breathe in and twist your elbows. Lower your body until your chest is simply over the steps.

Breathe out while fixing your arms and raising your body back to the beginning position.

Keep your neck and in an impartial situation during this exercise. Try not to allow your hips to drop.

Step creep

Start at the base of the steps, on your arms and legs.

Your arms need to be under your shoulders, knees underneath your hips, and feet laying on the ground.

Gradually raise up to your toes, lifting the two knees off the floor.

Keep yours in an unbiased position.

Start creeping up the means by pushing your contrary arm and leg ahead simultaneously to the following stage.

Substitute this cross-body design for the ideal number of steps you wish to climb.

Step lurch
Confronting ceaselessly from the steps, stand tall with your feet shoulder-separation separated.

Move your left leg in reverse to lay on a stage.

Breathe in, twist your knees, and lower your body.

Breathe out, expand your legs, and come back to a standing position.

Your front knee ought to be over the focal point of your front foot. Try not to let the knee twist past your toes.

Repeat for the ideal number of times before changing to the correct leg.

Venture up
Stand tall with feet shoulder-separation separated before a stage.

Fix your center and spot your left foot level on the progression while keeping your spine straight.

Move your weight onto the left foot.

Inhale out, and press through the left heel and move your body up onto the progression.

Spot the correct foot totally on the progression. Take in, and afterward gradually bring down your left foot to the floor.

Return the correct foot to the floor to come back to your standing position.

Keep driving with the left leg until you’ve finished your objective number of reiterations, at that point rehash on the contrary side.

Need a greater test? Hold a free weight or weighted item on the contrary hand of the venturing leg.

Evade
Remain with your feet equal (sideways) to the steps. The correct side of your body needs to be nearest to the steps.

Using your stomach muscles, twist your knees and hips marginally.

Step the correct foot onto the initial step, trailed by the left.

Proceed with this venturing movement until you’ve arrived at the head of the steps.

Continuously lead with the high foot. Try not to allow your feet to cross while moving up the steps.

Walk down the steps and repeat the arrangement with the left leg driving.

Crab strolls
This step practice starts at the head of the steps.

Sit at the head of the steps with your feet 2 stages beneath you and about shoulder-width separated.

Bring your arms behind you and spot your hands on the top advance.

Gradually raise your hips off the ground, fixing your glute muscles as you do as such.

Press your hands into the progression to shield your shoulders from rising upward.

Start creeping down the means by pushing your contrary arm and leg ahead simultaneously to the subsequent stage.

Exchange this cross-body crab stroll down the ideal number of steps.

For a greater test, start at the base of the steps and slither up.

Step jumps
For this exercise, you’ll perform scaled-down squats.

Stand tall with feet shoulder-separation separated on the most reduced advance.

Face toward the base of the steps.

Drop your hips down and back by bowing at the knees. Make certain to draw in your stomach muscles. Bounce forward off the progression with the two feet.

As you land, twist your knees to control the arrival. Work on landing delicately.

Consistent your parity by swinging your arms forward.

Keep your knees in accordance with your feet. Try not to let the knees breakdown internal as you land.

Come back to the beginning position and repeat.

Step wellbeing

Great parity is an absolute necessity for any step movement. Before starting any kind of step work out, ensure you are consistent on your feet. Additionally, a few —, for example, the step jumps — may be unsafe if you have a bone fracture or osteoporosis. Aren’t sure if you should check them out? Ask as to whether these exercises practices are alright for you by Maxwell Medical.

What’s more, last, put your phone down. Looking through online life or noting a book or call during a step exercise could cause a perilous slip-up and fall.